DNA testing has far reaching implications. It is being used not just for serious purposes like forensic science but also to determine the ethnicity of individuals. A particular company, marketing its tests to determine the ethnicity of people calls it recreational genomics. These tests have become extremely common these days and are being employed by a large number of people.
Some companies use SNP tests to confirm the ethnicity of a person. SNP's are the positions on the DNA where one nucleotide has mutated to another nucleotide. They provide information about the percentage influence of a particular ethnic group in a person. Various companies provide this information based on their own criteria. Some of them divide it into several categories while some companies use only a few ethnic groups as the background. The accuracy of these tests still remains controversial and can not be relied upon completely.
STR is another technology that is frequently employed to provide information about the ethnic background of a person. STR's are defined as locations on chromosomes where two or more nucleotide patterns are repeated. Also, these repetitions are generally adjacent to each other. However, the results of an STR test vary from those of SNP tests as they do not depend upon bio-geographic divisions of the world. The STR tests are more useful in cases where intra group relations are to be established. In cases where inter group relations have to be determined, these tests have serious limitations.
In males, Y chromosome sampling is carried out to determine their ethnicity. This testing is more reliable because only males have this chromosome. All males of a particular family have more or less similar pattern on their Y chromosome.
However, these tests are not completely accurate all the time. The traces of an ancestor, several generations back, may not show up. On other occasions a very little percentage of some ethnic group character may actually be a false indicator. These tests may even spur the already prevalent gap between different races. In a society like America that is already multi racial, these tests may provide a spark of hatred for another group.
Also, people are using these tests for their own private gains. A leading daily noted that a person with a slight Jewish ancestry trace claimed Israeli citizenship on the basis of that. Others are successfully using it to gain admissions to the colleges in minority category or to stake their claims to property.
Although these tests reveal a lot of information about a person, a certain ethical code should be created for people performing these tests to avoid its misuse. People deciphering their ethnic origins should also be prevented from using this for personal gains.
Wednesday, August 23, 2006
DNA Profiling
What is DNA Profiling?
It is a report card on your blood. The DNA profile looks at various significant markers and keeps track of them. Once the analysis is complete you have one person's DNA report card or DNA profile. The profile focuses on micro satellites and other regions most often seen in relationship and human identity studies. Remember that most all of our DNA is identical to any other person. The DNA profile looks for the small differences between individuals.
This field is highly subsidized and most commonly used by governmental agencies. However, it does exist in the consumer market as well. For those individuals who would like to be thorough and have all their information, you can send off for a DNA profiling kit. The services range from blood preservation, testing services for paternity, and even a DNA ID card from certain providers. This service is excellent for the health sector. It makes it easy in case of an emergency, no testing required, your blood type is already determined. Or if you need to donate blood they can just review your DNA ID card and profile and determined if it is suitable.
In the United Kingdom there is a DNA database available to all agencies for DNA matching. Most DNA profiling falls under two categories - health sector or law enforcement. But eventually it will be propelled in the consumer market, further assisting those previously mentioned groups while making more people aware of their individual DNA.
If you would like to learn more about how DNA profiles are being used to help government agencies all across the world you can visit either Interpol or FBI official websites and simply type in DNA profile in their respective search engines. It usually falls under the category of Forensics in this area. To learn more about the importance of the impact of human genetics and personal DNA profiling visit agencies like the Red Cross and other International Medical Disaster organizations.
Why Should I get a DNA Profile?
There are many ways in which a DNA profile can help you. First, in claims of paternity, especially in the event of a family estate where the relationship to the deceased is an issue, the profiling process can establish presence or absence of the required biological relationship. DNA profiles can also assist in missing persons cases, to provide identification, avoid improper blood at hospitals, etc. The cost to a consumer is around $200-$300 depending on the type of procedure selected. Make sure that the lab you choose follows proper chain of custody rules in the event you need the profile for a legal proceeding.
It is a report card on your blood. The DNA profile looks at various significant markers and keeps track of them. Once the analysis is complete you have one person's DNA report card or DNA profile. The profile focuses on micro satellites and other regions most often seen in relationship and human identity studies. Remember that most all of our DNA is identical to any other person. The DNA profile looks for the small differences between individuals.
This field is highly subsidized and most commonly used by governmental agencies. However, it does exist in the consumer market as well. For those individuals who would like to be thorough and have all their information, you can send off for a DNA profiling kit. The services range from blood preservation, testing services for paternity, and even a DNA ID card from certain providers. This service is excellent for the health sector. It makes it easy in case of an emergency, no testing required, your blood type is already determined. Or if you need to donate blood they can just review your DNA ID card and profile and determined if it is suitable.
In the United Kingdom there is a DNA database available to all agencies for DNA matching. Most DNA profiling falls under two categories - health sector or law enforcement. But eventually it will be propelled in the consumer market, further assisting those previously mentioned groups while making more people aware of their individual DNA.
If you would like to learn more about how DNA profiles are being used to help government agencies all across the world you can visit either Interpol or FBI official websites and simply type in DNA profile in their respective search engines. It usually falls under the category of Forensics in this area. To learn more about the importance of the impact of human genetics and personal DNA profiling visit agencies like the Red Cross and other International Medical Disaster organizations.
Why Should I get a DNA Profile?
There are many ways in which a DNA profile can help you. First, in claims of paternity, especially in the event of a family estate where the relationship to the deceased is an issue, the profiling process can establish presence or absence of the required biological relationship. DNA profiles can also assist in missing persons cases, to provide identification, avoid improper blood at hospitals, etc. The cost to a consumer is around $200-$300 depending on the type of procedure selected. Make sure that the lab you choose follows proper chain of custody rules in the event you need the profile for a legal proceeding.
Mitochondrial DNA Testing
Mitochondrial DNA is a primitive type of DNA. Mothers pass on their mitochondrial DNA to their children, both boys and girls. However, fathers do not pass on their mitochondrial DNA. This DNA can be tested to determine the relationship between two samples.
There are several reasons why a linear array Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) test may need to be performed. When a sample is not suitable to undergo other types of DNA testing, to test hair strands without the root, to test a highly degraded tissue, or to test skeletal remains. Outside of forensic casework it can be used for maternal testing, sibling studies, genealogy, grand maternity or maternal kinship analysis. This test works because the DNA in the samples contains certain markers in males and females which are specifically inherited from the maternal line. It is commonly used where there is not enough of a sample or high quality samples to use radioactive probes or nuclear testing on the sample. Linear Array Mitochondrial DNA testing is used to fill in the gaps using a specific genetically inherited marker.
This type of DNA testing is for frequently establishing maternity when the potential mother is not available for testing (either due to death or an unwillingness to cooperate). The test can be used to see if two females are related to each other, but it cannot be used for establishing paternity. For example, an adopted woman who locates her birth family can use this testing to verify her relationship to the family, even if her biological mother has passed away.
However, mitochondrial DNA testing is not the perfect solution. It does not always work because it is only works for determining maternal lineage only. The results take up to two months and the results cannot be compared to other DNA testing methods to help verify the results. Another negative aspect is the cost, which can be $700 or more per sample.
The ability to test mtDNA has brought advances in both forensic DNA testing and genealogical DNA testing. While it is not always the best test available, it is sometimes the only test available in situations where there was not DNA testing available just a few years ago.
There are several reasons why a linear array Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) test may need to be performed. When a sample is not suitable to undergo other types of DNA testing, to test hair strands without the root, to test a highly degraded tissue, or to test skeletal remains. Outside of forensic casework it can be used for maternal testing, sibling studies, genealogy, grand maternity or maternal kinship analysis. This test works because the DNA in the samples contains certain markers in males and females which are specifically inherited from the maternal line. It is commonly used where there is not enough of a sample or high quality samples to use radioactive probes or nuclear testing on the sample. Linear Array Mitochondrial DNA testing is used to fill in the gaps using a specific genetically inherited marker.
This type of DNA testing is for frequently establishing maternity when the potential mother is not available for testing (either due to death or an unwillingness to cooperate). The test can be used to see if two females are related to each other, but it cannot be used for establishing paternity. For example, an adopted woman who locates her birth family can use this testing to verify her relationship to the family, even if her biological mother has passed away.
However, mitochondrial DNA testing is not the perfect solution. It does not always work because it is only works for determining maternal lineage only. The results take up to two months and the results cannot be compared to other DNA testing methods to help verify the results. Another negative aspect is the cost, which can be $700 or more per sample.
The ability to test mtDNA has brought advances in both forensic DNA testing and genealogical DNA testing. While it is not always the best test available, it is sometimes the only test available in situations where there was not DNA testing available just a few years ago.
Ancestry DNA Testing
Ever wonder if one of your ancestors was a Native American? Adopted and looking for some cultural roots? Or are you working on your family tree and looking for new avenues to search? Well you might want to consider ancestry DNA testing. It is a simple test with one goal in mind - to located your deep ancestral roots. In addition, most ancestry DNA testing kits come with a genetic fingerprint profile as well.
The tests are usually generalized into certain groups of people such as Africans, Indo European, Native American and East Asians since they are large historical groups. Such exams are legal and will hold up in court which are especially useful in America if you are a Native American. You can learn if you are entitled to any relief and casino funds, free college tuition, and more.
Most of these basic ancestry DNA testing kits will be mailed to your door and ask you to swab the inside of your cheeks. They use these tissue samples to determine your DNA profile. There are lots of tests available, such as a European test so you can learn where in the European Map you originated from. You might want to purchase two or three kits if you believe you know which ones may apply to you.
You do not need to be in the dark about your cultural roots any more. These DNA testing kits help with your search and hopefully find the answers you are looking for. The costs are very minimal for the benefit of knowing your ancestors. For a complete test kit you are looking at spending around $1000 - there are generally discount programs for ordering all the available tests. If you just are curious and want a basic package they start around $250-$300 for each kit.
You do not need to test everyone in the family. In fact it is recommended you test the males since they carry the unique XY or Y chromosome that women do not carry. This Y chromosome is vital in finding all the clues and ancestry. The tests are based on statistical probabilities of your origins, so interpret all numbers and percentages with caution. Usually when presenting this for legal purposes the courts require more than ancestry DNA testing as evidence to support a claim of heritage.
The tests are usually generalized into certain groups of people such as Africans, Indo European, Native American and East Asians since they are large historical groups. Such exams are legal and will hold up in court which are especially useful in America if you are a Native American. You can learn if you are entitled to any relief and casino funds, free college tuition, and more.
Most of these basic ancestry DNA testing kits will be mailed to your door and ask you to swab the inside of your cheeks. They use these tissue samples to determine your DNA profile. There are lots of tests available, such as a European test so you can learn where in the European Map you originated from. You might want to purchase two or three kits if you believe you know which ones may apply to you.
You do not need to be in the dark about your cultural roots any more. These DNA testing kits help with your search and hopefully find the answers you are looking for. The costs are very minimal for the benefit of knowing your ancestors. For a complete test kit you are looking at spending around $1000 - there are generally discount programs for ordering all the available tests. If you just are curious and want a basic package they start around $250-$300 for each kit.
You do not need to test everyone in the family. In fact it is recommended you test the males since they carry the unique XY or Y chromosome that women do not carry. This Y chromosome is vital in finding all the clues and ancestry. The tests are based on statistical probabilities of your origins, so interpret all numbers and percentages with caution. Usually when presenting this for legal purposes the courts require more than ancestry DNA testing as evidence to support a claim of heritage.
Is The Baby Mine?
One of the biggest questions a man may be faced with - Is that baby mine? People accuse their partners being unfaithful, people begin to deny that the child is theirs because it does not even remotely look like them, and so forth. Well, this is a simple question to answer. Take a paternity test kit and you will know in less than a week.
There are a dozen or so places you can purchase paternity test kit at retail stores or online. However, if purchasing a paternity testing kit online there are a few things to watch out for. Some companies advertise $100 low rates for a paternity test kit but what most people never see in the fine print are hidden surcharges making it much more expensive, so read the fine print or find a company with no hidden fees. Make sure they are a reputable standing testing facility or else you could have an inexperienced staff botch your results - no side businesses - you want a real full time functional lab to perform the work. Make sure they have all the legal paperwork and procedures or else the paternity test kit will not hold up in court if this is for legal reasons. Anything using a PO Box or fake address avoid. If it only takes a day or so and costs very little it is a fraudulent offer, run the other way. A major testing company will have customer service, so call first before ordering. Last but not least, use your credit card with fraud protection just in case. Never use your debit card, never send a check, money order or cash, and never divulge your social security number. Follow these simple pointers and you should be fine.
Most reputable firms will send you a kit within 24 hours, since most people want this done quickly which boosts the price up (most places have all charges added into the fees). All three people will need to be tested using the paternity test kit, mother, father and child. Once the samples are taken you send them back to the facility, usually in a prepaid envelope. Depending on how much you want to pay you can have the results expedited (1-2 days) or standard (3-5 days). So in as little time as a standard week you could find out if the child is really yours or not. The large facilities have a 99.9% accuracy rating so you can rest assured your test results are true and not switched with another test result. You should be ready to pay between $150-$250 for a full test kit for all parties. The procedure is painless and quick, so what are you waiting for. Get that question answered, is it mine?
There are a dozen or so places you can purchase paternity test kit at retail stores or online. However, if purchasing a paternity testing kit online there are a few things to watch out for. Some companies advertise $100 low rates for a paternity test kit but what most people never see in the fine print are hidden surcharges making it much more expensive, so read the fine print or find a company with no hidden fees. Make sure they are a reputable standing testing facility or else you could have an inexperienced staff botch your results - no side businesses - you want a real full time functional lab to perform the work. Make sure they have all the legal paperwork and procedures or else the paternity test kit will not hold up in court if this is for legal reasons. Anything using a PO Box or fake address avoid. If it only takes a day or so and costs very little it is a fraudulent offer, run the other way. A major testing company will have customer service, so call first before ordering. Last but not least, use your credit card with fraud protection just in case. Never use your debit card, never send a check, money order or cash, and never divulge your social security number. Follow these simple pointers and you should be fine.
Most reputable firms will send you a kit within 24 hours, since most people want this done quickly which boosts the price up (most places have all charges added into the fees). All three people will need to be tested using the paternity test kit, mother, father and child. Once the samples are taken you send them back to the facility, usually in a prepaid envelope. Depending on how much you want to pay you can have the results expedited (1-2 days) or standard (3-5 days). So in as little time as a standard week you could find out if the child is really yours or not. The large facilities have a 99.9% accuracy rating so you can rest assured your test results are true and not switched with another test result. You should be ready to pay between $150-$250 for a full test kit for all parties. The procedure is painless and quick, so what are you waiting for. Get that question answered, is it mine?
DNA Testing To Establish Paternity
Paternity testing is probably one of the best known forms of DNA testing. The test is most often used in child custody and child support cases where a putative father denies that he is the biological father of the child in question. There are sometimes opposite situations, where multiple men claim to be the father. When there is no clear answer to who the father is, the court will order the man and the child to submit to paternity testing to determine who the biological father is.
The actual test is painless for both the putative father and the child. A skin scraping is taken from inside the cheek of both people and then analyzed by a testing facility. DNA testing for paternity is generally thought to be 99.99% accurate. However, accuracy is dependent on the lab performing the testing in terms of how careful they are with the samples and how many loci (locations) that they test. It is preferable to use a DNA testing lab to analyzes at least 15 loci.
The cost of paternity tests has decreased dramatically in the past few years. A test can be performed for less than $500 in most cases. For some, this may still be a lot of money, but determining paternity is potentially a lifelong committment to the raising of a child, so accurate results are worth the cost involved.
To process the DNA that has been collected, the lab first isolates the DNA. Most labs use Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testing for analysis. This process breaks down the DNA and looks at specific loci to see if the child and the father's DNA match. Because each person has a pair of each chromosome, one will match their mother and the other will match their father. If a child's DNA does not match the man's DNA at 3 or more loci, then it is usually determined that he is not the father.
Once the results of the paternity test are provided, the couple and/or the court must make a decision about custody and child support. Establishing paternity is the first crucial step in what can be a long drawn out legal process. However, if both parents can agree on the best custody arrangement for their child, the child support is usually determined by a preset formula.
The ease and low cost of paternity testing has made establishing paternity much more accessible to everyone. Courts and parents no longer have to rely on memories and calendars to try to determine who fathered a child.
The actual test is painless for both the putative father and the child. A skin scraping is taken from inside the cheek of both people and then analyzed by a testing facility. DNA testing for paternity is generally thought to be 99.99% accurate. However, accuracy is dependent on the lab performing the testing in terms of how careful they are with the samples and how many loci (locations) that they test. It is preferable to use a DNA testing lab to analyzes at least 15 loci.
The cost of paternity tests has decreased dramatically in the past few years. A test can be performed for less than $500 in most cases. For some, this may still be a lot of money, but determining paternity is potentially a lifelong committment to the raising of a child, so accurate results are worth the cost involved.
To process the DNA that has been collected, the lab first isolates the DNA. Most labs use Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testing for analysis. This process breaks down the DNA and looks at specific loci to see if the child and the father's DNA match. Because each person has a pair of each chromosome, one will match their mother and the other will match their father. If a child's DNA does not match the man's DNA at 3 or more loci, then it is usually determined that he is not the father.
Once the results of the paternity test are provided, the couple and/or the court must make a decision about custody and child support. Establishing paternity is the first crucial step in what can be a long drawn out legal process. However, if both parents can agree on the best custody arrangement for their child, the child support is usually determined by a preset formula.
The ease and low cost of paternity testing has made establishing paternity much more accessible to everyone. Courts and parents no longer have to rely on memories and calendars to try to determine who fathered a child.
DNA Testing Basics
DNA testing is now being used in a variety of settings, including paternity testing, forensic (crime) DNA testing and genealogy testing.
DNA is substance in our cells that controls all of our biological traits, including things like eye and hair color. DNA is a very skinny string and made up of strands of 4 different nucleotides, which are most commonly referred to as A, T, G and C. Those letters stand for longer chemical names, but even the scientists use the letters when referring to a sequence of DNA. The nucleotides pair up, like rungs on a ladder. The ladder is twisted into a helix shape. The DNA helixes are then coiled and looped to form the chromosomes. Chromosomes come in pairs. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosome, 22 regular chromosome pairs and one pair of gender chromosomes that determine whether we are male or female.
The order of the nucleotides is referred to as genetic code. You will often see it written as GCCTAAGTTCAGGGT. A piece of DNA could be synthesized from this code alone. When DNA testing is performed, the DNA code is used to identify similar or identical pieces of DNA. Because the DNA code is passed from parent to child, it is easy to determine if a child belongs to one or both parents. This is why paternity testing has become so commonplace.
But DNA testing can look for much more than a maternal and paternal relationship with a child. Forensic DNA testing compares biological samples taken from crime scenes to determine if there is an exact DNA match to victims, witnesses and suspects. Although this science was not admissible several years ago, the technology has evolved and it is now widely accepted by the courts.
In addition to establishing paternity, DNA testing can be used to determine more distant family relationships. By comparing samples from several related individuals, a lab can determine if an individual is related to the family. This type of ancestral DNA testing is more accurate when the family members are closer in relationship to the person who is trying to establish the relationship.
Prenatal DNA testing is used to identify babies that are affected by genetic disorder such as Down's Syndrome. It can also accurately determine the gender of the unborn baby, which is of concern to many parents.
Scientists hope to uncover the code for a host of genetic disorders and then to find a way to prevent or correct them. The first step in this process was to map the entire human genome sequence. This was known as the Human Genome Project and DNA testing techniques made it possible.
DNA is substance in our cells that controls all of our biological traits, including things like eye and hair color. DNA is a very skinny string and made up of strands of 4 different nucleotides, which are most commonly referred to as A, T, G and C. Those letters stand for longer chemical names, but even the scientists use the letters when referring to a sequence of DNA. The nucleotides pair up, like rungs on a ladder. The ladder is twisted into a helix shape. The DNA helixes are then coiled and looped to form the chromosomes. Chromosomes come in pairs. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosome, 22 regular chromosome pairs and one pair of gender chromosomes that determine whether we are male or female.
The order of the nucleotides is referred to as genetic code. You will often see it written as GCCTAAGTTCAGGGT. A piece of DNA could be synthesized from this code alone. When DNA testing is performed, the DNA code is used to identify similar or identical pieces of DNA. Because the DNA code is passed from parent to child, it is easy to determine if a child belongs to one or both parents. This is why paternity testing has become so commonplace.
But DNA testing can look for much more than a maternal and paternal relationship with a child. Forensic DNA testing compares biological samples taken from crime scenes to determine if there is an exact DNA match to victims, witnesses and suspects. Although this science was not admissible several years ago, the technology has evolved and it is now widely accepted by the courts.
In addition to establishing paternity, DNA testing can be used to determine more distant family relationships. By comparing samples from several related individuals, a lab can determine if an individual is related to the family. This type of ancestral DNA testing is more accurate when the family members are closer in relationship to the person who is trying to establish the relationship.
Prenatal DNA testing is used to identify babies that are affected by genetic disorder such as Down's Syndrome. It can also accurately determine the gender of the unborn baby, which is of concern to many parents.
Scientists hope to uncover the code for a host of genetic disorders and then to find a way to prevent or correct them. The first step in this process was to map the entire human genome sequence. This was known as the Human Genome Project and DNA testing techniques made it possible.
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